Fernando Ortiz<\/strong> He understood, better than few other Cuban researchers, the depth of that heritage. Much of his work was devoted to demonstrating that Africa had not been a secondary presence in Cuba, but rather one of the essential components of its historical development. For Ortiz, studying Africans and their descendants meant also studying music, religions, language, food, instruments, social organizations, funeral rites, and the many ways of interpreting life and death that eventually became part of Cuban culture.<\/p>\n You cannot understand Cuba's history by looking only to Spain, because a huge part of the island as we know it also has its roots in Africa. For a long time, that second reality proved much harder for certain sectors of Cuban society to accept than the first.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Slavery in Cuba did not begin with the mass arrival of Africans. The first people to be enslaved were the island\u2019s indigenous inhabitants following the Spanish conquest, which began in the early 16th century<\/em>, when various colonial mechanisms of exploitation\u2014particularly the encomienda system\u2014placed indigenous communities under the control of the conquistadors and forced them to work under devastating conditions.<\/p>\n Diseases introduced from Europe, violence, displacement, labor exploitation, and the gradual destruction of community structures led to a demographic catastrophe among the indigenous population. As that labor force dwindled, the presence of enslaved Africans began to grow, although during the first few decades it was still far from reaching the proportions it would later attain.<\/p>\n The African presence has been documented since the early stages of Spanish colonization. Those first Africans arrived on an island that was not yet the massive sugar producer of the 19th century<\/em> and in which slavery existed but had not yet become the vast economic system that would ultimately shape the nation's history.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n For much of the 16th and 17th centuries, Cuba occupied a relatively peripheral position within the Spanish empire\u2019s economy, although Havana was of enormous strategic importance as a port of call for the fleets. The major shift began during the 18th century and accelerated following the British occupation of Havana in 1762, the subsequent expansion of trade, and, most decisively, the Revolution of Saint-Domingue, which began in 1791.<\/p>\n Saint-Domingue, the future Haiti, had been the Caribbean\u2019s leading sugar-producing power. When the enslaved people\u2019s rebellion destroyed that colonial order, the international market continued to demand sugar, and capital began to seek out other territories capable of producing it. Cuba possessed exceptional conditions to fill that role, with an abundance of land, good ports, proximity to the U.S. market, merchants with capital, and a colonial administration willing to support expansion.<\/p>\n Sugar plantations then began to spread at an extraordinary rate, and with them, the need for labor increased. The wealth generated by Cuban sugar was thus linked to one of the most brutal businesses in Atlantic history, because every new sugar mill needed workers, and for decades those workers were obtained by importing human beings from Africa.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Slave ships crossed the Atlantic, transporting captives as merchandise. Those men, women, and children came from very different regions of Africa and belonged to peoples with distinct languages, religions, and traditions, who in Cuba would eventually be grouped under colonial designations such as Lucum\u00ed, Congo, Carabal\u00ed, Arar\u00e1, Mandinga, or Gang\u00e1<\/em>, categories that oversimplified much more complex cultural realities.<\/p>\n The Atlantic crossing was in itself an experience of extreme violence. The captives traveled crammed together for weeks in the ships\u2019 holds, subjected to disease, dehydration, hunger, abuse, and high mortality rates. Those who survived disembarked in an unknown land where they might be physically examined, classified, and sold.<\/p>\n Between the late 18th century and much of the 19th century, hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans arrived in Cuba. It is difficult to determine an exact figure because a considerable portion of the trade came to be conducted clandestinely after international restrictions were imposed, but records reconstructed by historians and contemporary projects such as SlaveVoyages show that Cuba became one of the main destinations during the final major phase of the transatlantic slave trade.<\/p>\n Spain signed international agreements aimed at ending the trafficking, but the legal ban did not put an end to it. Ships continued to arrive clandestinely for decades because the sugar industry generated enough profits to make breaking the law a risk that many merchants were willing to take.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The sugar mill was one of the fundamental economic institutions of slave-owning Cuba and also one of the places where the contradictions of that society were most starkly evident. Within the same space, one could find relatively advanced technologies for the industrial production of sugar alongside a labor system based on the ownership of human beings.<\/p>\n During the harvest season, the pace of work could be exhausting because the sugarcane had to be cut, transported, milled, and processed quickly. The continuous operation of mills and boilers imposed grueling workdays and turned certain sugar mills into workplaces where the workers\u2019 time was completely subordinated to the needs of production.<\/p>\n Many enslaved people lived in barracks and were subjected to discipline enforced through surveillance and corporal punishment. Stockades, shackles, whippings, and other forms of violence were not merely isolated excesses committed by particularly cruel owners, but rather instruments used to maintain a system that depended on forcing thousands of people to work against their will.<\/p>\n Slavery in Cuba, however, was not limited to plantations. In cities such as Havana, there were domestic slaves, artisans, vendors, porters, cooks, laundresses, and workers engaged in numerous trades. Some were able to periodically hand over a sum of money to their owners and keep another portion in the hope of saving enough to buy their freedom, while around them a population of free Blacks and Mulattos was also growing, making the colony\u2019s racial structure much more complex.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The experience of enslaved women added other forms of vulnerability to economic exploitation. In addition to domestic, urban, or agricultural labor, many were subjected to sexual abuse by owners, overseers, and other men who held power over their lives, while motherhood unfolded under a system that could treat their own children as property to be sold.<\/p>\n Enslaved families lived constantly under a threat that free families could hardly comprehend. An owner could sell a husband, a wife, or a child and, in a matter of hours, sever relationships that had been built over years; as a result, enslaved communities developed various strategies to maintain family ties and networks of solidarity even when the law made those ties subordinate to the owner\u2019s rights.<\/p>\n When the abolitionist reforms of the 19th century began, the situation of mothers and children played a significant role in the debate. The Moret Law of 1870 declared children born to enslaved women after its enactment to be free under certain conditions, introducing a decisive rift within the institution, although it would still be years before it disappeared entirely.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Escaping was one of the most direct ways to reject the condition of slavery, and fugitives were known in Cuba as cimarrones. Some were captured after just a few days, while others managed to survive for years in the mountains, forests, and hard-to-reach regions, where communities came to exist known as palenques<\/em>.<\/p>\n The Life of the runaway slave<\/em> It was a far cry from any romanticized image of freedom. It meant finding food, seeking shelter from the elements, knowing the terrain, and living under the constant threat of being discovered by groups organized to hunt down fugitives; yet for some men and women, that existence was preferable to voluntarily returning to the rule of a slaveowner. Cuban geography still preserves places associated with that resistance. Caves, mountains, trails, and ancient settlements serve as reminders that there were people willing to face hunger, persecution, and uncertainty rather than accept slavery once again.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n One of those runaways managed to tell his own story. In the 1960s, Miguel Barnet learned of the existence of Esteban Montejo, an elderly man who had been born into slavery in the 19th century, had escaped, and had lived as runaway slave<\/em> before later taking part in the wars of independence.<\/p>\n The interviews between Barnet and Montejo led to the creation of [...], in 1966 Biography of a Runaway Slave<\/strong>, one of the most important accounts related to slavery in Cuba. Montejo recalled the barracks, the punishments, the religious beliefs, the festivals, the work at the sugar mills, and his life in hiding in the mountains, where he learned to find food, identify plants, and stay away from anyone who might lead him back into slavery.<\/p>\n Montejo\u2019s life takes on an extraordinary dimension because it spanned several different eras in Cuba. He was born at a time when one man could legally own another; he experienced slavery, escaped from it, witnessed its demise, fought in the wars of independence, and lived to see the 20th century, when he was finally able to recount a world that, to new generations, seemed to belong to a very distant era.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Long before Montejo shared his memories, Juan Francisco Manzano<\/em> he had achieved something even more extraordinary. Born into slavery in the late 18th century<\/em>, he learned to read and write in a society that had not been structured to allow a man of his station to become a writer and poet.<\/p>\n His autobiography<\/em>, written during the 1830s, is an exceptional document in Latin American history because it offers insight into slavery through the voice of those who endured it. Manzano described humiliations, punishments, arbitrary treatment, and the daily fear caused by depending on the will of another person, demonstrating that slave owners did not need to constantly resort to the whip because uncertainty and the lack of autonomy could also function as permanent forms of violence.<\/p>\n His release was made possible by a fundraising campaign organized by intellectuals associated with the circle of Monte Sunday<\/em>. The second part of his autobiography disappeared and has never been found, leaving one of those documentary gaps that seem to sum up the stories of millions of people\u2014of whom sales records, inventories, and prices have survived, but almost never their own words.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n In 1812, Cuba was the scene of one of the most significant anti-slavery conspiracies in its history. At the center of these events was Jos\u00e9 Antonio Aponte, a free Black man, carpenter, artist, and veteran of Havana\u2019s Black militias, around whom a movement coalesced that challenged both the slave system and the colony\u2019s racial structure.<\/p>\n The conspiracy linked enslaved people and free people of color in different areas and sparked immense fear among the authorities. After the movement was dismantled, Aponte was arrested, interrogated, and ultimately executed, but during a search of his home, an object was discovered that would turn his story into one of the most fascinating episodes in Cuban history.<\/p>\n Aponte possessed a picture book he had created himself, featuring characters, buildings, historical events, religious references, and depictions whose meaning the authorities tried to understand during the interrogations. The defendant was forced to explain those pages while officials recorded his statements. The book disappeared and has never been recovered. Its contents can be partially reconstructed using the documents from the legal proceedings, but the original images remain lost, turning that object into one of the great documentary ghosts of Cuban history and leaving open the possibility that some archive may still preserve a piece capable of changing what we know about Aponte\u2019s intellectual universe.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n In November 1843, work began at the sugar mill Triumvirate<\/em>, in Matanzas, a rebellion by enslaved people that spread to other plantations in the region. Among the figures associated with the uprising was Carlota<\/strong>, an enslaved African woman of [origin] lucum\u00ed<\/em> whose name managed to survive in historical records that rarely made a point of preserving the individual biographies of enslaved people.<\/p>\n The rebels attacked the plantations\u2019 administrative buildings and attempted to spread the uprising, while the colonial authorities responded with violent repression. Carlota died during those events, and the details of her life remain fragmentary, but she ultimately became one of the best-known symbols of women\u2019s resistance against slavery in Cuba. The scarcity of information about Carlota also explains a fundamental aspect of this history. Many enslaved people appear in the archives only when they were bought, sold, punished, escaped, or participated in a rebellion; thus, reconstructing their lives requires reading documents almost always produced by the very institutions that kept them subjugated.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Following the rebellions of 1843 came one of the darkest episodes in Cuban colonial history. The authorities claimed to have uncovered a widespread conspiracy among enslaved people and free people of color, launching a campaign of arrests and interrogations known as \u201cLa Escalera\u201d because of the method used to restrain and flog numerous suspects during interrogations.<\/p>\n The repression reached enormous proportions and affected thousands of people through imprisonment, punishment, expulsion, and executions. Among those executed was Gabriel de la Concepci\u00f3n Vald\u00e9s<\/em>, Pl\u00e1cido<\/em>, one of the best-known Cuban poets of his time, whose death became forever linked to that period.<\/p>\n The true extent of the conspiracy remains a subject of historiographical debate. The existence of resistance and conspiracies among enslaved people is well documented, but numerous researchers have questioned whether colonial authorities exaggerated the events to justify a crackdown aimed at destroying networks of free people of color and any possibility of insurrection. The memory of 1844<\/em> For generations, it was associated with a terrible expression, the Year of the Ox<\/em>, which summed up the scale of a crackdown whose violence remained etched in the memory of Cuba's Black population for a long time.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n For decades, the memory of Haiti hung over Cuban slave society. The revolution that began in Saint-Domingue<\/em> It had shown that an enslaved population could organize itself, defeat European armies, destroy a plantation system, and create an independent state.<\/p>\n For many enslaved people, that story might have represented the possibility of a different future, while for Cuban slaveowners it served as a terrifying warning. The so-called \u201cfear of Haiti\u201d helps explain the violence with which certain movements were suppressed, as well as one of the major contradictions of certain Creole sectors that demanded political rights from Spain while simultaneously defending their right to own human beings.<\/p>\n The prospect of an independent Cuba might have been appealing to some members of the Creole elite, but a social revolution similar to the one in Haiti posed a direct threat to their wealth, their property, and their position in society. This contradiction would shape discussions about independence, annexation, colonial reforms, and abolition for decades to come.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The slave system managed to transport bodies across the ocean, but it never managed to completely strip them of their memory. Africans brought with them religions, cosmologies, medicinal knowledge, music, cooking traditions, stories, languages, and ways of relating to the living and the dead\u2014all of which survived and were transformed within Cuban society.<\/p>\n The town councils<\/em> national identity made it possible to maintain support networks and certain collective identities. African religious traditions interacted with one another and with colonial Catholicism, giving rise to processes of transformation that would eventually lead to expressions deeply rooted in Cuban culture. The Ocha's Rule<\/strong>, different traditions of origin Congo<\/em>, the companies Abaku\u00e1<\/em>, numerous musical rhythms, instruments, words, and customs are not foreign elements that were later superimposed on an already established Cuban culture. They were part of the very process through which that culture was built.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n When Fernando Ortiz began to systematically study the African presence, a large portion of the Cuban intellectual elite viewed those traditions through the lens of racial prejudices inherited from the 19th century<\/em>. His own early work contains categories and approaches typical of that era, but his thinking evolved, making him one of the leading scholars of Afro-Cuban culture.<\/p>\n In 1916, he published Black slaves<\/strong> <\/em>And over the following decades, he researched religions, music, instruments, languages, social groups, and customs. Those studies helped reshape the way Cuban cultural history was interpreted because they showed that African influence could not be considered a marginal aspect within an essentially European society. Ortiz would eventually formulate the concept of transculturation to describe processes in which different cultures do not merely replace one another, but rather lose certain elements, acquire others, and produce new realities. His celebrated *Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y el az\u00facar* used two fundamental products of national history to explore the enormous economic, social, and cultural differences that had helped shape Cuba.<\/p>\n After Ortiz, it became much more difficult to seriously study Cuban identity without including Africa in the explanation.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Stories surrounding slavery emerged at a boundary where documented history begins to blend with oral tradition. Stories of uncatchable maroons, slaves protected by religious objects, African spirits capable of punishing cruel overseers, enchanted caves, hidden treasures, and the dead returning from the grave circulated for generations throughout different regions of Cuba.<\/p>\n Not all of these stories can be verified through documents, and that is precisely why they must be treated with care. However, dismissing them entirely would mean losing another kind of testimony, because myths can reveal the fears, desires, and mechanisms of resistance of those who passed them down. In a society where the landowner held material power and institutional violence, the imagination could overturn the established order. The foreman might rule during the day, but in the stories told at night, he too could encounter forces that no whip could control.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Opposition to slavery in Cuba did not emerge only during the final years of the institution. F\u00e9lix Varela<\/strong> <\/em>In 1822, he drafted a plan aimed at the gradual abolition of slavery and realized early on that Cuba\u2019s political transformation was inseparable from a moral issue that affected the very foundations of society.<\/p>\n Jos\u00e9 Antonio Saco<\/strong><\/em> He devoted a significant portion of his intellectual work to studying slavery and combating the African slave trade. His views were shaped by racial, demographic, and political concerns typical of the 19th century and cannot be equated without qualification with contemporary abolitionism, but his monumental historical research and his opposition to the African slave trade played an important role in the Cuban debate.<\/p>\n They were joined by writers, religious leaders, politicians, journalists, and reformers of various persuasions. However, presenting abolition solely as the result of intellectuals and legislators who ultimately granted freedom would perpetuate an incomplete view of history, because the enslaved people themselves were essential protagonists in the process through escapes, rebellions, negotiations, the purchase of freedom, legal claims, and military participation.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n On October 10, 1868, Carlos Manuel de C\u00e9spedes<\/strong><\/em> began at his sugar mill La Demajagua<\/em> the uprising that would mark the beginning of the Ten Years' War<\/strong>. C\u00e9spedes was a slave owner, and his decision to free his slaves and invite them to join the struggle turned that episode into a powerful symbol of the two major issues facing 19th-century Cuba: independence and slavery.<\/p>\n The emancipatory process within the independence movement was fraught with contradictions because there were also landowners among the insurgents, and there were differences of opinion regarding the pace and conditions of abolition. The war itself gradually transformed those positions and increasingly linked the struggle against Spanish rule with the abolition of slavery.<\/p>\n Free Black men and former slaves rose to key positions within the Liberation Army and played a decisive role in making the racial issue one that the future nation could not ignore. Cuban independence was becoming difficult to imagine without the freedom of those who had been enslaved.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The legal abolition of slavery in Cuba was a slow process. The Moret Act<\/strong><\/em> The 1870 law granted freedom to certain groups, including children born to enslaved women after the law was enacted and slaves in certain age groups, but the institution of slavery continued to exist.<\/p>\n In 1880, Spain passed legislation that formally abolished slavery while establishing the patronage system. Former slaves came to be known as sponsored<\/em> and, during a transitional period, they remained obligated to provide services to their former owners\u2014who had now become their employers\u2014although the new legal framework established mechanisms that would allow them to gradually attain freedom.<\/p>\n He board of trustees<\/em> It prolonged a deeply unequal relationship for several years and demonstrated the extent to which such a powerful economic institution could resist being dismantled even after the law had recognized that it should be ended. The beneficiaries themselves made use of the legal options available to them, bought their freedom, asserted their rights, and helped accelerate the system\u2019s collapse.<\/p>\n He October 7, 1886<\/strong> A royal decree put an end to the patronage system, and with it, legal slavery in Cuba finally came to an end. After centuries of colonial exploitation, no person could continue to be legally recognized as the property of another.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Abolition put an end to a legal status, but it could not immediately erase the consequences that had accumulated over centuries. Former enslaved people entered a society where property, education, networks of power, and a considerable portion of wealth remained concentrated in other hands, while racial prejudices outlived the system that had used them as justification.<\/p>\n The culture built by generations of Africans and their descendants also survived. Rhythms born in enslaved communities became part of the national music, words of African origin entered the Spanish spoken in Cuba, and persecuted religions continued to be passed down until they became recognizable components of the island\u2019s cultural identity. The institution that had sought to reduce human beings to units of labor eventually disappeared, while a fundamental part of what those people had brought with them managed to endure.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n There is an understandable temptation to tell the history of slavery<\/em> only through two categories, executioners<\/em> y victims<\/em>, but that distinction is insufficient to grasp the human dimension of what happened. The enslaved were victims of an extremely violent system, yet at the same time they were people capable of building families, negotiating spaces of autonomy, maintaining their beliefs, producing culture, conspiring, escaping, fighting, and transforming the society that sought to reduce them to commodities.<\/p>\n Jos\u00e9 Antonio Aponte imagined a different world and left behind a book we can no longer read. Juan Francisco Manzano managed to write a life story that legally belonged to someone else. Carlota died during a rebellion. Esteban Montejo chose to take refuge in the mountains rather than accept the authority of a master, and he lived long enough to recount a world into which he was born as property and from which he ultimately emerged as a free man.<\/p>\n Slavery came to an end legally<\/em> from Cuba in 1886, but the quest for freedom had begun long before that. Every escape, every slave hideout, every rebellion, every freedom bought, every family preserved against a slaveowner\u2019s will, and every African tradition passed down to a new generation constituted different ways of rejecting the fundamental principle upon which the entire system rested. That is why the history of Cuban slavery is not merely a history of exploitation. It is also part of the history of resistance and the formation of a society that, even after the chains were abolished, continued to carry within itself the consequences, the conflicts, and the extraordinary cultural legacy of those who were once treated as property.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Hablar de la esclavitud en Cuba es entrar en una de las zonas m\u00e1s profundas de la formaci\u00f3n de la naci\u00f3n. Durante siglos, hombres, mujeres y ni\u00f1os fueron comprados, vendidos, castigados, separados de sus familias y obligados a trabajar como propiedad de otros seres humanos. Sin embargo, reducir aquella historia \u00fanicamente al sufrimiento dejar\u00eda fuera […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":284226809,"featured_media":2248,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_first_post":false,"_jetpack_hide_featured_image":false,"_jetpack_featured_image_duplicate_dismissed":0,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"csg_event_key":"","csg_evidence":""},"categories":[3503,33205427],"tags":[33206806,33206407,33206802,33206799,33206810,33206809,33206796,33206798,33206800,33206807,33206797,33206658,33206805,33206801,33206808,33206803,33206813,33206811,33206804,33206812],"class_list":["post-2245","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-historia","category-historia-universal","tag-abolicion-de-la-esclavitud","tag-africa","tag-carlota","tag-cimarrones","tag-colonialismo-espanol","tag-cultura-afrocubana","tag-esclavitud-en-cuba","tag-esclavos-cubanos","tag-esteban-montejo","tag-felix-varela","tag-fernando-ortiz","tag-historia-de-cuba","tag-ingenios-azucareros","tag-jose-antonio-aponte","tag-jose-antonio-saco","tag-juan-francisco-manzano","tag-la-demajagua","tag-la-escalera","tag-trata-de-esclavos","tag-triunvirato"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nBEFORE THE AFRICAN CAME THE INDIAN<\/h2>\n
SUGAR CHANGED EVERYTHING<\/h2>\n
THE BLACK ATLANTIC<\/h2>\n
THE MILL<\/h2>\n
WOMEN AND THE COST OF RAISING CHILDREN<\/h2>\n
THOSE WHO WENT INTO THE MOUNTAINS<\/h2>\n
ESTEBAN MONTEJO<\/em><\/strong>: THE MAN WHO SURVIVED HIS CENTURY<\/h2>\n
JUAN FRANCISCO MANZANO<\/strong>: THE SLAVE WHO WROTE HIS OWN LIFE STORY<\/h2>\n
APONTE AND THE BOOK THAT DISAPPEARED<\/h2>\n
CARLOTA<\/strong> AND THE TRIUMVIRATE'S REBELLION<\/h2>\n
1844: THE YEAR OF LEATHER<\/h2>\n
THE FEAR OF HAITI<\/h2>\n
THE GODS ALSO CROSSED THE ATLANTIC<\/h2>\n
FERNANDO ORTIZ AND THE DISCOVERY OF ANOTHER CUBA<\/h2>\n
MYTHS, THE DEAD, AND MEMORY<\/h2>\n
THE CUBANS WHO SAID NO<\/h2>\n
C\u00c9SPEDES<\/strong>, LA DEMAJAGUA<\/em> AND A CUBAN CONTRADICTION<\/h2>\n
A FREEDOM THAT CAME IN PIECES<\/h2>\n
BUT THE NEXT MORNING, NOT EVERYONE WAS THE SAME<\/h2>\n
THE ISLAND THAT REMAINED<\/h2>\n